Launch

Solid rocket boosters release alumina particles that catalyse ozone destruction in the upper atmosphere.

Rocket exhaust deposits black carbon particles in the stratosphere, absorbing solar radiation and contributing to localised warming and ozone depletion.

Risk of a decommissioned or uncontrolled satellite colliding with active spacecraft, potentially creating a cascading debris event (Kessler Syndrome).

Residual propellant remaining in decommissioned satellites can cause explosions, generating significant debris fields.

Leakage of highly toxic hydrazine propellant during handling, fuelling, or in-orbit operations, posing severe health and environmental hazards.

Spillage of propellants and combustion byproducts contaminate soil and groundwater at launch facilities.

Limited geostationary orbital slots are becoming increasingly congested, raising collision risks and limiting future access.